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GNDU Question Paper-2023

B.A 2

Semester

HOME SCIENCE

(Family Resources Management and Physiology)

Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks:60

Note: There are Eight questions of equal marks. Candidates are required to attempt any Four

questions.

SECTION-A

I. Define Home Management. Explain the process of Home Management.

II. Discuss the factors that affect the selection and buying of furniture.

SECTION-B

III. What is Work Simplification? Discuss the important principles of Work Simplification.

IV. What are Family Resources? Discuss their classification and characteristics.

SECTION-C

V. (a) Name the different parts of alimentary canal and label them in the diagram.

(b) Explain mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

VI. Explain the structure and functions of heart with the help of well labelled diagram.

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SECTION-D

VII. Explain the primary and secondary sex organs of male reproductive system. Explain the

structure and functions of any one in detail.

VIII. Explain the structure and functions of human skin

GNDU Answer Paper-2023

B.A 2

Semester

HOME SCIENCE

(Family Resources Management and Physiology)

Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks:60

Note: There are Eight questions of equal marks. Candidates are required to attempt any Four

questions.

SECTION-A

I. Define Home Management. Explain the process of Home Management.

Ans: Home Management: Definition and Process

Definition of Home Management

Home Management is the process of wisely using available resources (such as time, money,

energy, and materials) to achieve the best possible living conditions for a family. It involves

planning, organizing, and controlling different household activities to ensure a comfortable and

happy life.

In simple words, home management is like running a small business where the family is the team,

the house is the workplace, and the goal is to make life smooth, efficient, and enjoyable for all

members.

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For example, if a family has a fixed monthly income, home management helps in deciding how

much to spend on food, rent, education, and savings so that all needs are met without financial

stress.

Process of Home Management

The process of home management follows a series of steps that help in achieving family goals

efficiently. These steps include:

1. Planning

2. Organizing

3. Implementing (Executing the Plan)

4. Evaluating

Let’s understand each step in detail with practical examples.

1. Planning: Setting Goals and Making Decisions

Planning is the first and most important step in home management. It involves setting goals and

deciding how to achieve them using available resources.

Why is Planning Important?

• Helps in using resources wisely.

• Prevents wastage of time, money, and energy.

• Reduces stress and confusion.

Example:

A mother who needs to prepare meals for the family plans the menu for the week based on the

ingredients available and the family's nutritional needs. This avoids last-minute cooking stress and

ensures a balanced diet.

Steps in Planning:

• Identify needs and goals (e.g., saving money for a festival, ensuring a healthy diet).

• List available resources (e.g., monthly income, time, skills, kitchen ingredients).

• Make a step-by-step action plan (e.g., budget for groceries, prepare meals in advance).

2. Organizing: Arranging Resources for Effective Execution

Once planning is done, the next step is organizing. This means arranging resources in a way that

makes work easier and more efficient.

Why is Organizing Important?

• Saves time and effort.

• Ensures that all tasks are completed smoothly.

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• Avoids confusion and chaos.

Example:

If a family is planning a birthday celebration, organizing would include:

• Assigning tasks (one person decorates, another prepares food).

• Making a checklist (cake, decorations, gifts, etc.).

• Keeping things ready in advance to avoid last-minute hassle.

Ways to Organize in Daily Life:

• Keeping kitchen items in an orderly manner so that cooking is quick and easy.

• Making a schedule for cleaning different parts of the house.

• Arranging clothes in the wardrobe based on usage (daily wear, formal wear, seasonal

clothes).

3. Implementing: Carrying Out the Plan

Implementation is the step where all the planning and organizing are put into action.

Why is Implementation Important?

• Ensures that goals are achieved.

• Makes home management effective and successful.

• Helps in identifying possible difficulties.

Example:

A student planning for exams has created a study timetable (planning) and arranged books and

notes (organizing). Now, they must follow the timetable and study regularly (implementation).

Tips for Effective Implementation:

• Follow the plan step by step.

• Be flexible and ready to make small adjustments if needed.

• Stay disciplined and motivated.

4. Evaluating: Checking the Results and Making Improvements

Evaluation means checking whether the home management plan was successful or if any changes

are needed for better results.

Why is Evaluation Important?

• Helps in learning from mistakes.

• Improves future management.

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• Ensures that resources are used effectively.

Example:

A family who planned to save ₹5,000 in a month should check at the end of the month if they met

their goal. If they couldn’t save enough, they should find out why and adjust their spending for the

next month.

Ways to Evaluate in Daily Life:

• Checking whether a monthly budget was followed.

• Reviewing whether a meal plan helped in reducing food wastage.

• Seeing if a new cleaning routine made the housework easier.

Key Areas of Home Management

Home management involves different aspects of life, including:

1. Time Management – Scheduling daily tasks to balance work, family, and personal time.

2. Money Management – Budgeting and saving to meet financial goals.

3. Energy Management – Using energy wisely to avoid exhaustion (e.g., delegating tasks

among family members).

4. Household Work Management – Dividing chores among family members for efficiency.

5. Decision-Making – Choosing the best options for food, education, investments, etc.

Conclusion

Home management is essential for maintaining a well-organized and happy household. It involves

planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating different tasks to make the best use of

resources. Just like a business needs good management to grow and succeed, a home also needs

proper management to function smoothly and provide comfort and security to all family

members.

II. Discuss the factors that affect the selection and buying of furniture.

Ans: Factors Affecting the Selection and Buying of Furniture

Furniture is an essential part of every home, office, and public space. It provides comfort,

enhances the beauty of a place, and serves various functional needs. However, selecting and

buying the right furniture is not a simple task. Many factors influence this decision, from budget

and space availability to personal taste and durability. Understanding these factors helps in

making a smart purchase that suits both needs and budget.

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Below are the key factors that affect the selection and buying of furniture:

1. Budget

One of the most important factors when buying furniture is the budget. Furniture comes in a wide

range of prices, from affordable options to luxurious designer pieces. Before purchasing, it is

important to determine how much one can spend.

• Example: If someone has a budget of ₹10,000 for a sofa, they will look for options within

that range instead of checking expensive ones costing ₹50,000.

A well-planned budget helps in balancing quality and affordability. It is also a good idea to

compare prices from different shops or online platforms to get the best deal.

2. Space and Size of the Furniture

The available space in a room plays a crucial role in selecting the right furniture. Large furniture in

a small room can make it look crowded, while tiny furniture in a big space may look odd.

• Example: A large dining table with eight chairs may not fit in a small apartment kitchen, so

a compact table with four chairs is a better choice.

To avoid space issues, it is advisable to measure the area before buying and ensure the furniture

fits well while leaving enough walking space.

3. Purpose and Functionality

Furniture should be selected based on its intended purpose. The needs of a student, a working

professional, or a large family will differ. Some furniture serves multiple functions, which can be

beneficial.

• Example: A sofa-cum-bed is useful in small homes where it can be used as a sofa during the

day and a bed at night.

Buying furniture that meets specific needs ensures it is useful and not just decorative.

4. Durability and Material

Furniture is a long-term investment, so its durability is an important factor. The material used in

making the furniture determines its strength and lifespan.

• Wooden Furniture: Strong and long-lasting but expensive.

• Metal Furniture: Durable and modern-looking but can be heavy.

• Plastic Furniture: Affordable and lightweight but not very strong.

• Example: A family with young children should prefer a sturdy wooden dining table rather

than a fragile glass one, which can break easily.

Choosing good-quality material ensures the furniture lasts for years without frequent repairs or

replacements.

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5. Comfort and Ergonomics

Furniture should be comfortable, especially pieces used for sitting and sleeping. Poorly designed

furniture can cause back pain, discomfort, or other health issues.

• Example: An office chair should have good back support to prevent back pain from sitting

for long hours.

Comfort should be a priority, especially for furniture like beds, sofas, and chairs.

6. Aesthetic Appeal and Style

Furniture contributes to the overall look of a room. The color, design, and finish should match the

home’s interior décor. Some people prefer modern furniture, while others like traditional styles.

• Example: A home with a minimalist theme will look good with sleek, simple furniture,

while a traditional Indian home may have carved wooden pieces.

Selecting furniture that blends with the existing décor enhances the beauty of the space.

7. Maintenance and Cleaning

Some furniture requires high maintenance, while others are easy to clean. This is an important

factor, especially for busy people or families with children.

• Example: A white fabric sofa looks elegant but needs frequent cleaning, while a dark-

colored leather sofa is easier to maintain.

Choosing furniture that is easy to clean and maintain saves time and effort in the long run.

8. Safety and Stability

Safety is important, especially in homes with children or elderly family members. Furniture should

not have sharp edges, unstable legs, or weak joints.

• Example: A glass coffee table with sharp corners can be dangerous in a house with

toddlers, as they may bump into it and get hurt.

Checking for safety features before purchasing furniture is always a wise decision.

9. Climate and Weather Conditions

The climate of a place affects the choice of furniture material. Some materials do not withstand

certain weather conditions well.

• Example: Wooden furniture may expand in humid areas, while metal furniture can rust in

coastal regions.

Choosing weather-resistant furniture ensures it remains in good condition for a long time.

10. Availability and Delivery Options

Furniture shopping can be done in local stores or online. Availability and delivery options should

be considered, especially for large furniture pieces.

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• Example: Buying a wardrobe from a local store that offers free home delivery is a better

option than buying from a distant place where transport costs are high.

Checking delivery options and additional costs before purchase prevents unexpected expenses.

11. Brand and Warranty

Reputed brands often provide better-quality furniture and warranties. A warranty ensures that if

the furniture gets damaged within a certain period, it can be repaired or replaced.

• Example: A branded mattress with a 5-year warranty is a better choice than a local one

with no guarantee, as it ensures durability.

Buying from a trusted brand provides assurance of quality and service.

12. Trends and Personal Preferences

Some people prefer to follow the latest furniture trends, while others choose based on personal

taste. Trends keep changing, so it is better to buy furniture that one genuinely likes rather than

blindly following trends.

• Example: A person who loves traditional designs may buy antique wooden furniture even if

modern metal designs are in trend.

Selecting furniture based on personal style ensures long-term satisfaction.

Conclusion

Buying furniture is a significant decision that requires careful consideration of multiple factors.

Budget, space, durability, comfort, aesthetics, and safety all play an important role. Selecting

furniture that meets personal needs, matches home décor, and is easy to maintain ensures a good

purchase. By keeping these factors in mind, one can make an informed choice and invest in

furniture that is both functional and visually appealing.

When selecting furniture, one should also take time to explore different options, compare prices,

and check reviews to make the best decision. Smart furniture shopping not only enhances the

beauty of a home but also provides long-term comfort and convenience.

SECTION-B

III. What is Work Simplification? Discuss the important principles of Work Simplification.

Ans: Work Simplification: Meaning and Principles

What is Work Simplification?

Work simplification is the process of making a task easier, faster, and more efficient while

maintaining or improving the quality of the output. It involves analyzing the steps involved in a job

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and finding ways to reduce unnecessary effort, time, or materials. The main goal of work

simplification is to make tasks less tiring and more productive without reducing the quality of

work.

For example, if a homemaker has to cook a meal, work simplification would involve organizing

ingredients, using time-saving appliances, and following an efficient sequence of steps to complete

the cooking in less time and with less effort.

This concept is commonly used in home management, industries, offices, and even daily life. By

following work simplification techniques, people can complete tasks more efficiently and reduce

stress and fatigue.

Importance of Work Simplification

1. Saves Time: By removing unnecessary steps, work can be completed faster.

2. Reduces Fatigue: Less effort is needed when tasks are simplified.

3. Increases Efficiency: Resources are used wisely, reducing waste.

4. Improves Productivity: More work can be done in a shorter period.

5. Enhances Comfort: Tasks become less stressful and more manageable.

6. Prevents Errors: Well-organized tasks reduce mistakes.

7. Saves Money: Efficient methods reduce material waste and energy use.

For example, arranging commonly used kitchen utensils near the cooking area saves time and

energy while cooking.

Principles of Work Simplification

Work simplification follows several principles that help in organizing and completing tasks in a

better way. These principles ensure that work is done effectively with minimal effort.

1. Eliminate Unnecessary Steps

One of the simplest ways to simplify work is to remove unnecessary steps. Many tasks have extra

actions that do not add value but take time and effort.

󷃆󼽢 Example: While ironing clothes, keeping similar types of clothes together (like cotton shirts in

one group and silk clothes in another) can help avoid unnecessary temperature adjustments and

save time.

2. Use the Right Tools and Equipment

Using the correct tools makes work easier and faster. If the wrong tools are used, it may take more

effort and time to complete a task.

󷃆󼽢 Example: A sharp knife makes cutting vegetables quicker and safer than using a dull knife.

Similarly, using a washing machine instead of washing clothes by hand saves both time and

energy.

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3. Arrange Work Area Efficiently

A well-organized work area helps in reducing unnecessary movement and effort. Everything

should be placed in a convenient location to avoid wasting time searching for items.

󷃆󼽢 Example: In a kitchen, placing commonly used items like spices, knives, and utensils near the

cooking area helps in saving time and effort.

4. Follow a Proper Work Sequence

A proper sequence of work ensures that the task is completed smoothly and systematically.

Jumping from one task to another randomly can cause confusion and inefficiency.

󷃆󼽢 Example: While making tea, boiling water before adding tea leaves and sugar ensures a better

process rather than mixing all ingredients at the start.

5. Reduce Unnecessary Movements

Unnecessary bending, stretching, or walking can make a task more tiring. Reducing such

movements helps in conserving energy.

󷃆󼽢 Example: A housewife cleaning the house should keep all cleaning supplies in a bucket instead

of going back and forth to get them.

6. Use Both Hands Effectively

Using both hands properly can speed up work and reduce effort. One hand should not remain idle

while the other is working.

󷃆󼽢 Example: While peeling potatoes, holding the potato with one hand and peeling with the

other makes the process quicker compared to using just one hand.

7. Group Similar Tasks Together

Doing similar tasks together helps in saving time and effort. Instead of doing them separately,

grouping them ensures better efficiency.

󷃆󼽢 Example: If multiple clothes need to be ironed, ironing them all at once is more efficient than

ironing one at a time on different occasions.

8. Reduce Repetitive Tasks

Some tasks are repetitive and can be avoided or minimized with better planning.

󷃆󼽢 Example: Instead of going to the market every day to buy groceries, making a weekly shopping

list and purchasing everything at once saves time and energy.

9. Automate or Use Technology

Technology can help in reducing effort and making work easier. Modern appliances and gadgets

can save both time and energy.

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󷃆󼽢 Example: Using a mixer grinder for chopping and grinding saves effort compared to manual

chopping with a knife.

10. Take Rest Breaks to Maintain Energy

Taking short breaks between tasks helps in maintaining energy levels and improving overall

efficiency. Continuous work without breaks can cause fatigue and reduce effectiveness.

󷃆󼽢 Example: While studying or working on a computer, taking a 5-minute break every hour helps

in maintaining focus and reducing eye strain.

Application of Work Simplification in Daily Life

1. Cooking:

o Preparing ingredients in advance (chopping vegetables before cooking).

o Using pressure cookers to reduce cooking time.

o Keeping utensils and spices within easy reach.

2. Cleaning:

o Using vacuum cleaners instead of manual dusting.

o Grouping cleaning tasks (sweeping and mopping together).

3. Laundry:

o Sorting clothes by color and fabric before washing.

o Using washing machines instead of hand washing.

4. Studying:

o Keeping books and notes organized.

o Using digital notes instead of writing everything manually.

5. Office Work:

o Using computers and software to automate tasks.

o Keeping documents well-organized to avoid searching for them.

Conclusion

Work simplification is an essential technique that helps in making tasks easier, faster, and more

efficient. By following the principles of work simplification, we can save time, reduce fatigue, and

improve productivity in both household and professional work. Small changes in our daily habits,

such as organizing our work area, using proper tools, and following a systematic sequence, can

make a big difference in making life easier and more comfortable.

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IV. What are Family Resources? Discuss their classification and characteristics.

Ans: Family Resources: Classification and Characteristics

Introduction

In our daily lives, we use various resources to meet our needs and achieve our goals. A family, like

a small organization, requires resources to function smoothly. These resources help family

members in carrying out tasks, managing finances, and improving their overall well-being. The

proper use of resources ensures a better quality of life.

What Are Family Resources?

Family resources are the means or assets available to a family that help in fulfilling their needs and

achieving their goals. These resources can be anything that supports a family in managing its daily

life, such as money, time, knowledge, skills, and relationships. Just as a business needs resources

to operate successfully, a family also requires resources to maintain a happy and stable life.

For example, if a family wants to buy a new refrigerator, they need financial resources (money),

knowledge about different refrigerator models (information), and time to visit stores or browse

online options. Without these resources, the purchase may become difficult.

Classification of Family Resources

Family resources can be broadly classified into two main categories:

1. Human Resources

2. Non-Human Resources

Each of these categories includes various types of resources that contribute to family well-being.

1. Human Resources

Human resources are those resources that come from within the family members. These include

the abilities, talents, and qualities that help a family in managing its activities.

Types of Human Resources:

1. Time – Time is a valuable resource that every family member has. How a family uses its

time determines its efficiency and success. For example, a mother who manages time well

can complete household chores, help children with studies, and still have time for

relaxation.

2. Energy – The physical and mental strength required to perform tasks. A person’s energy

depends on their health, food intake, and rest. If a father is too tired after work, he may

not be able to spend quality time with his children.

3. Knowledge – The education and information that family members have. Knowledge helps

in making informed decisions. For example, knowing how to budget can help a family

manage its finances better.

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4. Skills and Abilities – These include talents such as cooking, sewing, problem-solving, and

communication. A family with a skilled cook may save money by preparing meals at home

instead of eating out.

5. Attitudes and Values – A positive attitude and good values help in maintaining harmony

within the family. For instance, a family that values education will encourage children to

study hard and achieve success.

6. Interpersonal Relationships – The bonds between family members and friends are

important resources. A strong family relationship provides emotional support during

difficult times.

Example: Imagine a family where both parents work full-time. If they manage their time and

energy wisely, they can balance work, household chores, and spending time with children

effectively.

2. Non-Human Resources

Non-human resources are the external resources that a family possesses. These are tangible and

can be measured or controlled.

Types of Non-Human Resources:

1. Material Resources – These include physical objects that a family owns, such as:

o Money – The most essential resource for buying necessities like food, clothes, and

housing.

o House and Furniture – The home and its contents, such as beds, tables, and kitchen

appliances, help in maintaining a comfortable life.

o Vehicles – Cars, bicycles, or motorcycles used for transportation.

o Clothes and Personal Belongings – Items like clothes, shoes, and accessories that

serve daily needs.

2. Community Resources – These are facilities and services available to the family in society,

such as:

o Educational Institutions – Schools, colleges, and libraries that provide learning

opportunities.

o Healthcare Services – Hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies for medical support.

o Recreational Facilities – Parks, playgrounds, and sports clubs for relaxation and

exercise.

o Public Transport – Buses, trains, and metros that help people travel conveniently.

3. Technological Resources – These include gadgets and appliances that make life easier,

such as:

o Electricity and Water Supply – Essential services for daily life.

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o Internet and Communication Devices – Smartphones, laptops, and the internet

that help in staying connected and gathering information.

o Home Appliances – Refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners that

reduce workload.

4. Natural Resources – Resources that come from nature and are used for survival, such as:

o Air and Water – Essential for life.

o Land and Soil – Used for farming and building homes.

o Sunlight and Energy Sources – Solar energy, wind energy, and fossil fuels used for

electricity and cooking.

Example: A family living in a city may depend on public transport to commute, while a rural family

may use bicycles or tractors. Both use different non-human resources according to their needs.

Characteristics of Family Resources

Understanding the characteristics of family resources helps in managing them efficiently.

1. Limited in Supply – Most resources, like money and time, are limited and must be used

wisely. For example, if a family spends too much on luxury items, they may struggle to

afford essentials.

2. Interdependent – One resource often depends on another. For instance, having knowledge

about healthy eating is useless if a family does not have money to buy nutritious food.

3. Can Be Developed – Human resources like skills and knowledge can be improved over

time. A person can learn new skills, like sewing or cooking, to enhance family well-being.

4. Varies from Family to Family – Every family has different resources based on income,

education, and location. A rich family may have more financial resources, while a middle-

class family may rely more on interpersonal relationships and skills.

5. Substitutable – Some resources can replace others. For example, if a family does not have

a car, they can use public transport. If they cannot afford expensive clothes, they can buy

budget-friendly alternatives.

6. Affect Decision-Making – The availability of resources influences how a family makes

decisions. If a family has a limited budget, they may choose to buy groceries in bulk to save

money.

7. Needs Proper Management – Efficient use of resources ensures a better life. Time

management helps working parents balance their job and household responsibilities.

Financial planning helps in saving for the future.

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Conclusion

Family resources play a crucial role in maintaining a happy and stable life. Proper classification and

understanding of these resources help in using them effectively. By managing time, money, skills,

and relationships wisely, a family can improve its quality of life.

A well-managed family uses its human and non-human resources efficiently to achieve its goals.

For example, a mother who balances work and household chores effectively, a father who saves

money wisely, and children who use their study time productively all contribute to the family’s

overall success.

Thus, family resource management is about making smart choices and ensuring that resources are

used in the best possible way for the benefit of all family members.

SECTION-C

V. (a) Name the different parts of alimentary canal and label them in the diagram.

(b) Explain mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

Ans: The Alimentary Canal: Parts and Their Functions

The alimentary canal is the long tube inside our body where food travels, gets digested, and

nutrients are absorbed. It starts from the mouth and ends at the anus. The food we eat passes

through various organs, where different processes take place to break it down into simpler forms

that our body can use.

Parts of the Alimentary Canal

The alimentary canal consists of the following parts:

1. Mouth

o The journey of food begins here.

o Teeth help in chewing (breaking food into smaller pieces).

o The tongue helps in mixing food with saliva and pushing it towards the throat.

o Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that starts digesting carbohydrates.

2. Pharynx (Throat)

o A small passage that connects the mouth to the food pipe (esophagus).

o It ensures food goes into the food pipe and not into the windpipe (which leads to

the lungs).

3. Esophagus (Food Pipe)

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o A long tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach.

o It moves food using rhythmic contractions called peristalsis (like squeezing

toothpaste from a tube).

4. Stomach

o A J-shaped organ that stores food for a few hours.

o It releases digestive juices, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes, to break

down proteins.

o The acid also kills harmful bacteria in food.

5. Small Intestine

o A long, coiled tube where most digestion and nutrient absorption happens.

o It has three parts:

▪ Duodenum – Mixes food with digestive juices from the liver (bile) and

pancreas.

▪ Jejunum – Absorbs nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

▪ Ileum – Absorbs vitamins and minerals.

6. Large Intestine

o Absorbs water from undigested food and forms solid waste (feces).

o Houses bacteria that help in digestion.

7. Rectum and Anus

o The rectum stores waste.

o The anus is the opening from where waste is removed from the body.

Diagram of the Alimentary Canal

To understand the different parts of the alimentary canal better, you can refer to a labeled

diagram. Here’s how you can visualize it:

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In a diagram, these parts are drawn in sequence, showing the path food takes in our body.

(b) Explain mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

Ans: Digestion of Food: Mechanical and Chemical Digestion

Once food enters the body, it undergoes two types of digestion: mechanical digestion and

chemical digestion. Let’s understand both in detail.

1. Mechanical Digestion

Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. It does not involve any

chemicals or enzymes but simply makes food easier to digest.

Examples of Mechanical Digestion

• Chewing in the mouth

o Teeth grind, cut, and crush food into small pieces.

o The tongue helps in mixing food with saliva.

• Churning in the stomach

o The stomach contracts and relaxes to mix food with digestive juices.

o It turns food into a semi-liquid form called chyme.

• Peristalsis in the esophagus and intestines

o The esophagus pushes food down to the stomach through peristalsis (wave-like

movements).

o The small intestine also moves food along while absorbing nutrients.

Analogy:

Think of mechanical digestion like breaking a biscuit into small pieces before dipping it in tea. The

smaller pieces mix faster, just like smaller food particles digest better.

2. Chemical Digestion

Chemical digestion involves breaking down food using enzymes and digestive juices into simpler

substances that the body can absorb.

Steps of Chemical Digestion

1. In the Mouth

o Saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.

o Example: A piece of bread tastes slightly sweet after chewing because amylase

breaks starch into sugar.

2. In the Stomach

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o The stomach releases hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin (a protein-digesting

enzyme).

o These help break down proteins into smaller molecules.

3. In the Small Intestine

o Digestive juices from the pancreas and liver help in digestion.

o Bile from the liver helps break down fats into smaller droplets (like dish soap

breaking grease in water).

o Pancreatic enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler

forms.

o Example: Milk contains protein, which is broken down by enzymes in the stomach

and small intestine.

4. Absorption of Nutrients

o After digestion, nutrients like glucose (from carbohydrates), amino acids (from

proteins), and fatty acids (from fats) are absorbed by the small intestine and sent

into the blood.

o The blood carries these nutrients to different parts of the body for energy and

growth.

Key Differences Between Mechanical and Chemical Digestion

Feature

Mechanical Digestion

Chemical Digestion

Definition

Physical breakdown of food

Breakdown of food using enzymes

Where It Happens

Mouth (chewing), stomach (churning),

intestines (peristalsis)

Mouth (saliva), stomach (gastric juices),

small intestine (enzymes)

Main Function

Makes food smaller and easier to digest

Converts food into simpler substances

Example

Chewing an apple

Enzymes breaking down starch into sugar

Conclusion

The alimentary canal is a well-organized system that processes food and absorbs nutrients to keep

us healthy. It includes organs like the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and anus, each

performing a unique function.

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Digestion occurs in two ways:

• Mechanical digestion (chewing, churning, peristalsis) physically breaks food into smaller

parts.

• Chemical digestion (enzymes, stomach acid, bile) breaks food down into molecules that the

body can use.

By understanding how digestion works, we can appreciate the importance of a balanced diet and

healthy eating habits. For example, chewing food properly helps digestion, and eating fiber-rich

foods helps the large intestine function efficiently.

VI. Explain the structure and functions of heart with the help of well labelled diagram.

Ans: Structure and Functions of the Heart

The human heart is one of the most vital organs in the body. It is responsible for pumping blood

throughout the body, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing carbon dioxide and

waste products. To understand how the heart works, we will explore its structure and functions in

a simple and detailed manner.

Structure of the Heart

The human heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist, located slightly to the left of the

chest. It is enclosed in a protective sac called the pericardium, which helps reduce friction as the

heart beats. The heart is divided into four chambers, which work together to pump blood

effectively.

1. Chambers of the Heart

The heart has four chambers:

1. Right Atrium – This is the upper-right chamber that receives deoxygenated blood (blood

without oxygen) from the body through two large veins:

o Superior vena cava (brings blood from the upper body)

o Inferior vena cava (brings blood from the lower body)

2. Right Ventricle – This is the lower-right chamber that pumps deoxygenated blood to the

lungs through the pulmonary artery, where the blood gets oxygen.

3. Left Atrium – This is the upper-left chamber that receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs

through the pulmonary veins.

4. Left Ventricle – This is the lower-left chamber that pumps oxygenated blood to the entire

body through the aorta, the largest artery in the body.

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2. Valves of the Heart

The heart has four valves that ensure blood flows in the correct direction:

1. Tricuspid Valve – Between the right atrium and right ventricle. It prevents blood from

flowing backward into the right atrium.

2. Pulmonary Valve – Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery. It allows blood to

flow into the lungs and prevents backflow.

3. Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve) – Between the left atrium and left ventricle. It prevents

backflow into the left atrium.

4. Aortic Valve – Between the left ventricle and aorta. It ensures blood flows into the aorta

and prevents it from coming back into the heart.

3. Walls of the Heart

The heart’s walls are made up of three layers:

1. Endocardium – The inner lining of the heart chambers.

2. Myocardium – The thick, muscular middle layer that helps the heart contract.

3. Epicardium – The outermost layer that provides protection.

4. Blood Vessels of the Heart

The heart is connected to major blood vessels that transport blood throughout the body:

• Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. (Example: Aorta)

• Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. (Example: Superior and Inferior Vena

Cava)

• Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that allow the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste

between blood and body tissues.

Functions of the Heart

The heart performs several essential functions to keep the body alive and healthy. Let’s break

them down in a simple way.

1. Pumping Blood

The heart’s main function is to pump blood throughout the body. This ensures that oxygen and

nutrients reach every cell, and waste products are removed.

• Analogy: The heart works like a water pump, pushing blood through pipes (blood vessels)

to different areas of the body.

2. Oxygenation of Blood

• The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the

lungs for oxygenation.

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• The left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the

body.

Analogy: Think of the heart as a delivery service. The right side collects used packages

(deoxygenated blood) and sends them to a factory (lungs) for repackaging (oxygenation). The left

side then delivers the fresh packages (oxygen-rich blood) to the entire city (body).

3. Controlling Blood Flow with Valves

The heart’s valves act like doors, ensuring blood moves in one direction and doesn’t flow

backward.

• Example: Just like a one-way road allows traffic to move in only one direction, heart valves

ensure blood flows properly without reversing.

4. Maintaining Blood Pressure

The heart controls blood pressure by regulating how forcefully it pumps blood. When the heart

beats strongly, blood pressure rises; when it relaxes, pressure decreases.

• Example: Imagine pressing a garden hose—if you press it hard, water comes out forcefully

(high pressure). If you reduce the pressure, water flows gently (low pressure).

5. Providing Nutrients and Removing Waste

Blood carries nutrients like glucose, vitamins, and minerals to body cells. It also removes waste

products like carbon dioxide and toxins to be excreted by the kidneys and lungs.

• Example: Blood is like a delivery truck, carrying food (nutrients) to workers (cells) and

picking up garbage (waste) to be thrown away.

6. Regulating Body Temperature

The heart helps maintain body temperature by adjusting blood flow. When it’s hot, the heart

pumps blood closer to the skin to release heat. When it’s cold, blood flow is reduced to conserve

warmth.

• Example: Just like a thermostat controls a room’s temperature, the heart helps regulate

body heat.

Well-Labelled Diagram of the Heart

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Conclusion

The heart is an essential organ that keeps us alive by pumping blood, delivering oxygen and

nutrients, and removing waste. It works like a powerful pump that never stops. Understanding the

heart’s structure and functions helps us appreciate its importance and take better care of our

health.

Key Takeaways:

✔ The heart has four chambers (right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle).

✔ It has four valves that prevent backflow of blood.

✔ The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body.

✔ Blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) transport blood.

✔ The heart helps regulate blood pressure and body temperature.

SECTION-D

VII. Explain the primary and secondary sex organs of male reproductive system. Explain the

structure and functions of any one in detail.

Ans: Primary and Secondary Sex Organs of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is responsible for producing, storing, and delivering sperm for

reproduction. It consists of primary sex organs (gonads) and secondary sex organs (accessory

organs) that work together to perform these functions.

1. Primary Sex Organ (Testes)

The testes (singular: testis) are the main reproductive organs in males. They are oval-shaped

structures located inside the scrotum, which is a pouch of skin hanging outside the body.

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Structure of the Testes

Each testis has the following main parts:

1. Tunica Layers: The outer covering of the testes consists of a tough fibrous layer called the

tunica albuginea and an outer layer called the tunica vaginalis, which protects the testis.

2. Seminiferous Tubules: These are long, coiled tubes inside the testes where sperm are

produced.

3. Leydig Cells: These cells are found between the seminiferous tubules and produce the

male hormone testosterone.

4. Sertoli Cells: These cells provide nourishment and support to developing sperm.

5. Epididymis: This is a coiled tube located on the back of each testis where sperm mature

and are stored before moving into the vas deferens.

Functions of the Testes

1. Production of Sperm: The testes continuously produce sperm through a process called

spermatogenesis.

2. Production of Testosterone: This male hormone is responsible for the development of

male characteristics like facial hair, deep voice, and muscle growth.

2. Secondary Sex Organs (Accessory Organs)

The secondary sex organs help in the transport, storage, and release of sperm. They include:

1. Epididymis – A coiled tube where sperm are stored and matured.

2. Vas Deferens – A duct that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

3. Seminal Vesicles – Glands that produce a fluid rich in fructose to provide energy to sperm.

4. Prostate Gland – Produces a fluid that nourishes and protects sperm.

5. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands) – Secretes mucus that lubricates the urethra for

sperm movement.

6. Penis – The organ through which sperm is delivered into the female reproductive tract.

Detailed Explanation of the Structure and Functions of the Testes

The testes are the most important organs of the male reproductive system because they produce

sperm and testosterone.

1. Location and Appearance

• The testes are located inside the scrotum, a skin-covered sac outside the body.

• This location is essential because sperm production requires a temperature slightly lower

than body temperature (about 2–3°C cooler).

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2. Internal Structure of the Testes

• Inside each testis, there are many small, tightly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.

• These tubules contain germ cells that develop into sperm and Sertoli cells that help in

sperm production.

• Leydig cells, located between the seminiferous tubules, produce the hormone

testosterone.

3. Function of the Testes

(i) Production of Sperm (Spermatogenesis)

• Sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout life.

• Inside the seminiferous tubules, immature sperm cells undergo several changes to become

mature sperm with tails for movement.

• This process takes about 64–72 days.

(ii) Production of Testosterone

• Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone responsible for male characteristics.

• It is produced by Leydig cells in response to signals from the brain.

• Effects of Testosterone:

o Development of facial hair, deep voice, and increased muscle mass.

o Growth of male reproductive organs.

o Increased sex drive (libido).

o Plays a role in sperm production.

Why Are the Testes Outside the Body?

• Sperm production requires a cooler temperature than the body's internal temperature.

• The scrotum helps regulate temperature by moving closer to or away from the body:

o In cold temperatures, it contracts to pull the testes closer to the body for warmth.

o In hot temperatures, it relaxes to allow the testes to hang lower and cool down.

Analogy for Better Understanding

Think of the testes like a factory that produces sperm and testosterone.

• The seminiferous tubules inside the testes act as production units where sperm are made.

• The Leydig cells are like chemical factories producing testosterone.

• The epididymis is like a storage warehouse where sperm are kept until they are needed.

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• The vas deferens is like a delivery pipeline that transports sperm to the urethra.

Conclusion

The testes are the most important organs in the male reproductive system, playing a dual role in

producing sperm and testosterone. The secondary sex organs support the transport, nourishment,

and delivery of sperm for reproduction. Understanding these structures helps us appreciate how

the male body works in the process of reproduction.

VIII. Explain the structure and functions of human skin

Ans: Structure and Functions of Human Skin

The human skin is the largest organ of the body and acts as a protective shield. It covers our entire

body and plays a crucial role in keeping us safe from external harm. The skin is like a strong yet

flexible cover that prevents germs, dust, and harmful substances from entering our body. It also

helps in maintaining body temperature, feeling sensations, and removing waste materials through

sweat.

To understand the skin better, we will first discuss its structure (the different layers and parts of

the skin) and then its functions (the work it does for our body).

Structure of Human Skin

The skin has three main layers:

1. Epidermis (Outer Layer)

2. Dermis (Middle Layer)

3. Hypodermis (Inner Layer or Fat Layer)

Each of these layers has a special role in protecting and maintaining the body. Let’s look at them

one by one.

1. Epidermis (Outer Layer)

The epidermis is the topmost layer of the skin. It is like a raincoat that covers and protects the

body. This layer is thin but very strong because it faces the outside environment directly.

• The epidermis has dead skin cells on its surface that keep wearing off and are replaced by

new cells from below. This is why old skin peels off naturally, and new skin appears.

• It contains melanin, the pigment that gives our skin its color. People with more melanin

have darker skin, while those with less melanin have lighter skin.

• Melanin also protects the skin from harmful UV rays of the sun. When we spend too much

time in the sun, the skin produces extra melanin, causing tanning.

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2. Dermis (Middle Layer)

The dermis is the thicker layer beneath the epidermis. It is like a strong cushion that gives support

to the skin. This layer contains:

• Blood vessels: These supply oxygen and nutrients to the skin, keeping it healthy.

• Nerve endings: These help us feel different sensations like touch, pain, heat, and cold.

• Sweat glands: These produce sweat, which helps in cooling the body.

• Oil glands (Sebaceous glands): These produce natural oil (sebum) to keep the skin soft and

prevent dryness.

• Hair follicles: These are the roots of hair. Hair helps protect the skin and keeps us warm.

3. Hypodermis (Inner Layer or Fat Layer)

The hypodermis, also called the subcutaneous layer, is the deepest layer of the skin. It is mostly

made up of fat and connective tissues. This layer:

• Acts as a cushion to absorb shocks and protect muscles and bones.

• Stores fat that keeps the body warm and provides energy.

• Connects the skin to the muscles and bones underneath.

Functions of Human Skin

The skin performs many important functions that help us survive. Some of the major functions are:

1. Protection

The skin acts as a barrier that protects the body from:

• Harmful bacteria and viruses.

• Dirt, dust, and harmful chemicals.

• Extreme temperatures (heat and cold).

• Injuries like cuts and scratches (though it is not completely injury-proof).

Example: When you fall and get a minor scratch, the skin quickly repairs itself. This is because new

skin cells grow to replace the damaged ones.

2. Regulation of Body Temperature

The skin helps control the body’s temperature in two ways:

• When it’s hot, the sweat glands release sweat, which cools the body when it evaporates.

• When it’s cold, the blood vessels shrink to keep warmth inside the body.

Example: On a hot summer day, you sweat more because the body is trying to cool down. On a

winter day, your skin feels cold because the body is holding onto heat.

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3. Sensation (Feeling Touch, Pain, and Temperature)

The skin contains nerve endings that help us feel different sensations like:

• Touch (feeling objects when we hold them).

• Pain (when we get hurt).

• Heat and cold (feeling hot water or ice).

Example: If you accidentally touch a hot pan, the nerve endings in your skin send a quick message

to your brain, making you pull your hand away instantly.

4. Excretion (Removal of Waste Through Sweat)

The skin helps in removing waste products like salt and water from the body through sweat. This

process is called excretion.

• Example: When you exercise, you sweat a lot because the body is removing extra heat and

waste.

5. Storage of Fat and Water

The hypodermis layer stores extra fat, which acts as an energy reserve when the body needs it. It

also stores water to keep the skin hydrated.

• Example: If a person does not eat for several hours, the body starts using stored fat for

energy.

6. Healing and Repair

The skin has the ability to heal itself when it gets minor injuries like cuts and bruises. New skin

cells replace the damaged ones.

• Example: If you get a small cut on your finger, a scab forms over it in a few days, and new

skin grows underneath until it is fully healed.

7. Absorption of Certain Substances

The skin can absorb some substances like medicines, oils, and vitamins. This is why some

medicines are applied directly to the skin (like ointments or pain relief patches).

• Example: Sunscreen is absorbed by the skin to protect it from sun damage.

8. Vitamin D Production

When the skin is exposed to sunlight, it produces Vitamin D, which is important for strong bones

and teeth.

• Example: Spending 10-15 minutes in the sun every day helps the body produce enough

Vitamin D.

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Interesting Facts About Skin

• The average adult has about 2 square meters of skin covering their body.

• Skin regenerates itself every 27 days.

• There are about 5 million hair follicles on the human body.

• Goosebumps appear when the body tries to stay warm by making tiny muscles under the

skin contract.

• The thickest skin is on the soles of the feet, and the thinnest skin is on the eyelids.

Conclusion

The skin is not just a simple outer covering but a complex organ with many essential functions. It

protects, senses, regulates temperature, and even helps remove waste. The three layers of skin –

epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis – work together to keep the body healthy and safe. Taking

care of the skin by keeping it clean, moisturized, and protected from the sun is important for

maintaining good health.

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